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The Versailles Agreement

The Treaty of Versailles was the most important peace treaty which ended World War I. It was signed on June 28, 1919 at Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Although the ceasefire signed on 11 November 1918 ended the actual fighting, the Allies took six months at the Paris Peace Conference to ratify the peace agreement. The Versailles Agreement articulates the compromise reached at the conference. Among the important points achieved were restrictions on German military power and war compensation.

Countries Present at the Paris Conference
On Saturday, January 18, 1919, the Paris Peace Conference opened at the headquarters of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Paris. At least 32 allied supporters attended the conference. Peacekeepers are a diverse group. Some represent major world powers such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan. While others speak for lower powers such as Belgium, Cuba, Siam (Thailand), and Czechoslovakia.

One major power that was not present at the meeting was Russia. Although Russian troops rarely win battles, if measured from the fallen soldiers the country contributes most. From August 1914 to the end of 1917, around 1.7 million Russian troops were killed. That number is about 30 percent of all Allied troops who died in World War I.

Despite strong reasons for including Russia in the negotiations, officials of France, Britain and the United States still did not invite representatives of the new Russian government to the Paris Peace Conference.

Since the Bolsheviks overthrew the Tsar government, the Allies have seen the Bolsevhik government as a threat. To justify Russia’s exclusion at the conference, Chairman of the Clemenceau Council argued that the Bolsheviks had lost their right to sit at the peace table after withdrawing from fighting at the end of 1917 and negotiating a separate peace treaty with Germany a few months later.

Besides Russia, another country not present at the conference was Germany. Initially President Wilson and Prime Minister Lloyd George had the idea of inviting representatives of the government of the newly established German republic, but Clemenceau opposed the idea.

Formation of the Council of Ten
The Peace Conference in Paris was attended by 32 countries, but the most important decisions were inevitably taken by the main Allies (the United States, Britain and France) known as the Supreme Council. Out of respect for the lower powers, the main Allied Party stated that delegates from all Allied member countries recognized in the assembly could attend the weekly Plenary Conference, where issues related to the agreement would be discussed in a public forum.

Members of the Plenary Conference were also given the opportunity to form a commission entrusted to study and make recommendations on various aspects of peace settlement, such as the establishment of an international peacekeeping organization in the 14 points proposed by Wilson.

After some debate, the conference planners decided that the Supreme Council, named the Council of Ten, would consist of two representatives each from only five countries. This elite committee includes four prominent Western powers – France, Great Britain, the United States, and Italy – and one rising Eastern power – Japan.

French Targets in the Council of Ten
It is undeniable that no other country in the Council of Ten suffers more losses than France. Around 1.3 million French troops died in World War I, along with at least 400,000 French civilians. Not to mention the heavy infrastructure damage because it has been the main battleground for four years.

These conditions led Clemencau to insist on demanding Berlin to pay compensation for the losses suffered. However, there is another motive for Clemencau’s ambition to weaken German power which for five decades has been a threat to France.

Based on France’s past experience, Clemenceau wanted to ensure that Germany would not be strong enough to control his homeland. Therefore, he proposed severe terms of peace, so that it could weaken Germany’s economy, military and territories. For Clemenceau, the ideal peace settlement not only disarmed the German navy, but also drastically reduced the number of its troops.

Next, Clemenceau wanted to reduce the size of German territory, by forcing them to release the Rhineland area, a part of Germany located west of the Rhine River. Finally, besides restoring the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine in France, Clemenceau wants the peacekeepers to add iron ore in western Germany and the coal-rich Saar Valley, as a form of compensation for hundreds of French mines and factories destroyed during the war and to forever weaken the industrial economy German.

Differences in Peace Objectives in Great Britain, Italy and Japan
Same with Clemenceau, Britain’s main negotiator on the Council of Ten, Prime Minister Lloyd George, also hopes to reduce the capabilities of the German military, especially at sea. The desire came after Germany became Britain’s main rival in the navy since the war had not yet begun.

Britain also wants payment of compensation from Germany. But unlike France, Lloyd George actually wants Germany to remain a viable economic power, both as a trading partner and as a force to counterbalance the Russian and French Bolsheviks. He believes that maintaining the balance of power on the continent is the best goal of British national peace and security.

Meanwhile, Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, aims to strengthen his country’s claim to the Austro-Hungarian territories promised by the London Treaty in 1915. Orlando never doubted that Italy deserved the spoils of war outlined in the secret Allied treaty. He considered it an appropriate compensation for the economic and human losses of the country during the war.

However, France, Britain and America were not too impressed by Italy’s efforts in the war. Lloyd George and Clemenceau in particular “assumed the Italians did not fight seriously”.

In addition, in January 1919, most of the new territories that Orlando wanted were no longer under Austrian or Hungarian control, including the Dalmatian coast and the Adriatic port of Fiume (now Rijeka, Croatia). Instead, the region has become part of the developing country of Yugoslavia, which was originally known as the Kingdom of Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia. The Serbs had also fought bravely during the war, so that France, Britain and America were reluctant to accommodate Italy’s wishes.

Like Orlando, representatives of Japan, Sutemi Chinda and Keishiro Matsui, Tokyo’s ambassadors in the United Kingdom and France, have an interest in strengthening their territorial claims. The Japanese government wants a peace conference to support the takeover of German territorial and economic rights in the northern Chinese province of Shandong, which has been occupied by Japanese troops since expelling Germany in 1914. Chinda and Matsui also hope that the Council of Ten will validate their country’s claims in the province, even in the face of strong protests from China

Although Japan only took a small role in combat during World War I and suffered the fewest losses compared to other members of the Council of Ten, Britain quietly approved the takeover of Shantung in return for its naval assistance in the Mediterranean in 1917.

Points of the Versailles Agreement
Negotiations have indeed begun since January. However, the first point adopted at the conference was not the resolution of the German problem, but the formation of the League of Nations which was only completed on 28 April 1919. Therefore the issue of Germany was only raised in March 1919.

This month, many complicated issues regarding the terms of peace remain unresolved. Therefore Wilson, Lloyd George, and Clemenceau decided to streamline the decision-making mechanism of the chair of the conference, by rejecting the proposals of every other member except for these three people and Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, known as the Council of Four. Following is the resolution of the German problem set out in the Versailles Agreement:

Free German territory

Germany lost its colony and most of its own territory in the agreement: West Prussia, part of East Prussia, Schleswig, Upper Silesia, Danzig, and Memel. Alsace-Lorraine also returned to France. The newly formed League of Nations as part of the agreement, took control of the Saar region and the entire Rhineland region was occupied for 15 years.

The agreement also said that Germany could not unite with Austria. The territorial loss cut Germany’s total population by 10 percent.

Military Restrictions
One of the first issues addressed by the “Council of Four” was what military resolution should be set for Germany. They were determined to prevent Germany from waging another war, so that all the members of the council wanted the agreement to suppress German military power.

In the end they left a military that looked more like a police than an army. According to the military provisions formulated by the council, German conscription must be abolished and the army limited to only 100,000 people.

German combat strength was also severely restricted after the use of military aircraft, heavy artillery, tanks or poison gas guns was banned. Only a handful of German factories were authorized to produce weapons, ammunition, and other war materials.

Every weapon shop must be destroyed immediately. Council Four also agreed that the German navy should be limited to only 15,000 people and must not have submarines. The entire German fleet itself was eventually sunk.

German Compensation Payment
According to Article 231, Germany was forced to admit mistakes because it started a war and had to pay heavy fines. The Germans call it the Article of Confession of War. The German fine is 266 Goldmark, equivalent to around 63 billion U.S. dollars. at that time.

German officials were shocked and angry when they heard the demand. Leading experts at that time also protested that payment in Germany in very large amounts could damage the global economy.

Nevertheless, France and Britain still insisted on demanding payment. The agreement includes a clause which states that Germany can be further punished if it fails to pay on time. Although Germany felt betrayed, they were forced to sign or risk greater punishment.

German Foreign Minister Hermann Muller and Colonial Minister Johannes Bell finally went to France to sign the agreement. The agreement was signed on 28 June 1919 at the Palace of Versailles and ratified in the General Assembly Session on 9 July 1919.

Although it was signed, the Treaty of Versailles continued to be criticized by the German people. They continued to complain that it had been “dictated” to them and violated the spirit of fourteen Wilsson peace points. In addition to paying such compensation costs demand sacrifices that can destroy their economies.

In the years after it was ratified, the Versailles Agreement was revised and amended, much of this change favored by Germany. A number of concessions were made in Germany and in 1938 only the article on territorial settlements remained.

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The Oil Industry in the Middle East of the 20th Century

The Middle East is a geographical center for the world oil industry. Oil is very important in foreign and domestic politics in almost every country in the region, oil importers and oil exporters. Therefore the oil industry in the Middle East has a special role in the economic development of the Middle East.

Discovery of the First Oil Field in the Middle East

The search for oil resources in the Middle East was first carried out by a British businessman named William D’Archy. In 1901, he was granted permission to explore oil in Iran, after offering a contract of 20,000 pounds sterling and 16% of profits for 60 years. Not only that, the company is also free of charge and obtained a large area.

After obtaining permission, D’Archy sent George Reynold to explore oil resources. Exploration requires huge costs, so that at one time when he was on the verge of bankruptcy, D’Arcy asked for help from the British government. The government agreed to help him, for fear that he might sell his permission to a foreign country like Russia.

England was still a big power at that time. Therefore, they want to maintain political existence in the Middle East. To protect the contract with the Qajar Dynasty, the British Government pressured the British oil company Burmah Oil to provide financial assistance to D’Arcy in 1905.

New investment from Burmah Oil Co. saved this project. However, over the next few years the situation has not changed, oil resources have not yet been discovered.

This fruitless search results in D’AArcy’s personal wealth being completely used up. Even some oil source search staff were fired to reduce the budget needed.

Meanwhile, the British government and other financiers, seemed to be beginning to despair after seven years the project did not work. Therefore, on May 26, 1908 London sent an order to Reynold to carry out the last drilling effort around the Sulaiman Mosque with a depth of 1600 feet.

While drilling was underway, the smell of sulfur wafted in the air at Suleiman Mosque. That was a good sign for Reynolds. At 4 o’clock in the morning, the drill reaches 1,180 feet below the desert and touches where the oil is. As a result, oil sprayed as high as 75 feet into the air.

The place was so remote that it took five days before D’Arcy got word via telegram in England. “If this is true,” he replied, “all our problems are over.” The discovery is true and more other oil wells were found in Persia, including the discovery of a large oil well in September.

After that discovery, D’Arcy and Burmah reorganized their ownership in 1909 as Anglo-Persian Oil Co. (AIOC). Initial public offering of shares sold out in 30 minutes in London. The British government holds half of AIOC’s shares, Burmah Oil 22%, and the rest is held by a joint pool of investors.

Since news of oil discoveries in the Middle East spread, large countries have been racing to find oil fields in the Middle East.

Development of the Oil Industry in the Middle East
The first exploration permits set patterns in this region for the next half century. The petroleum industry is a vertical and horizontal monopoly. Western companies control oil prospecting, sourcing, transporting, refining, and selling.

Seven large companies or so-called “The Seven Sisters” eventually dominated the oil industry in the Middle East. They are Standard Oil of New Jersey (founded by John Rockefeller), Royal Dutch Shell, British Petroleum, Gulf, Socony-Mobil, Texaco, and Standard Oil of California. Many of these companies have the same owner and director or at least one family.

On the other hand, the Middle East Government is too weak, does not have the technology to develop the industry itself, so voluntarily gives permission to Western companies to exploit their vital natural resources.

The second largest oil permit in the Middle East was signed between Iraq and a consortium of Western companies. Calouste Gulbenkian became a negotiator who negotiated the permit in return for a 5 percent stake. As a result of this agreement, Gulbenkian was nicknamed “Mr. Five Percent “and became one of the richest people in the world at that time.

The company’s ownership is divided as follows: 25 percent owned by D’Arcy, consisting of Burmah and the British government which came to be known as British Petroleum (BP); 25 percent Compagnie Française des Petroles (CFP), where the French government owns 40 percent; 25 percent of Royal Dutch Shell, consisting of British and Dutch interests; and 25 percent U.S. gas, including Standard Oil of New Jersey and Socony Mobil.

These companies share the 5 percent payment for Gulbenkian equally among themselves. The contract includes exploration permits throughout Iraq for 75 years, does not allow taxation for companies, and revenues for oil-producing countries do not increase at prices set by oil companies.

The licensing model which is actually very detrimental to Middle Eastern countries continued to be applied during the 20th century.

Recorded in 1950, Middle Eastern oil field ownership is divided as follows: Anglo-Persian Oil Co. (AIOC) in Iran, Iraq and Mosul; Basra Petroleum companies (IPC) in Iraq; Arabian-American Oil Company (ARAMCO) in Saudi Arabia; Kuwait Oil Company in Kuwait; Bahrain Petroleum Company in Bahrain; and Petroleum Development Ltd. (IPC) in Qatar.

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The Main Brain Behind the Holocaust Event

Heinrich Himmler is the main brain behind the genocide of thousands of Jews or better known as the Holocaust. He has enormous power as Reichsfuhrer-SS, chief of police and interior minister. This power placed him in the position of the second strongest person after Adolf Hitler. Himmler was not only the main brain of the Holocaust, but also the massacre of Gypsies, homosexuals, and Slavs.

Heinrich Himmler’s Journey to Power

Himmler was born on October 7, 1900 in Munich, Germany to a mother named Anna Maria and Gebhard Himmler’s father. His father was a Catholic school principal and teacher for the family of Wittelsbach’s nobles. He has a rather thin posture and has a hobby of playing chess and collecting stamps. It can be said he is the antithesis of an ideal Aryan race.

Even so, Himmler had a dream since he was young to grow up and become a soldier. At the age of 17 he became a volunteer force and underwent training in Regensburg.

After World War I, Himmler met prospective Nazi members in Freikorps, Germany’s right-wing paramilitary. From the beginning he liked the idea of anti-Semitic Hitler and decided to join the German National-Socialist Workers’ Party (Nazis) in 1925.

High loyalty, supported by administrative ability and assertiveness, led Himmler to be the head of Schutzstaffel (SS), Hitler’s elite bodyguard and Nazi figures. As head of the SS, Himmler expanded the membership of the paramilitary organization to 50,000 people.

After Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Himmler formed an intelligence agency without a uniform, Sicherheitsdienst (Sd).

In 1934, he organized the Night of the Long Knives, an operation to eliminate Sturmabteiling (SA) figures, led by Ernst Rohm. After the assassination of SA figures, Himmler then began to build the SS into the most powerful armed body in Germany in addition to the armed forces. The Nazis used it to eliminate their rivals and force the German population to comply.

In 1936, when Nazi rule became increasingly absolute, Himmler controlled the German secret police (Gestapo).

Operation Genocide Heinrich Himmler
Towards World War II or in 1939, Himmler was appointed as the Commissioner of the German Race Consolidation tasked with eliminating inferior races from German territory. In carrying out his duties, he expanded the concentration camps by arresting opponents, inferior races, Slavic and Jewish people. Thousands of people were sent to concentration camps in Poland, as a result many were killed, starved, or died of illness.

In May 1940, Himmler presented Adolf Hitler with a plan of genocide against the Jews. The plan was the final solution to rid Jews of Europe. Hitler, who from the beginning was very hated by Jews, immediately agreed to the plan.

The success of the plan was even greater, after Himmler was delegated to form the SS Einsatzgruppen special assassination squad. The force was tasked with carrying out the killing of millions of Jews, Gypsies, and Communists. To make killing more efficient, Himmler ordered concentration camps equipped with poison gas chambers.

In 1941, Jews were deported to more modern killing camps. The modern camps include Bergen-Belsen, Auschwitz-Birkenau, Belzec and Treblinka.

The Bergen-Belsen camp can house more than 60,000 Jews, around 35,000 died of starvation, disease and biological experiments.

The most famous death camp is Auschwitz-Birkenau. This camp was built by Himmler in May 1940 and since 1942 there have been seven gas chambers. An estimated 2.5 million people were killed (about 2 million of whom were Jews, Poles, Gypsies and Russian prisoners of war. Of that total only around 200,000 survived.

It did not stop there, in June 1942 Himmler ordered the deportation of 100,000 Jews from France and agreed to a plan to transfer 30 million Slavs to Siberia. The following month Himmler ordered a total clearance of Jews from the Polish government.

End of Life Heinrich Himmler
After the success of the Holocaust plan, Himmler was appointed interior minister in 1943. His power grew after Hitler disbanded military intelligence (Abwehr) and made Him the leader of Sd as the only intelligence in Germany in 1944.

However, his great power did not last long, after the same year the Allies repulsed German troops and began to push in from the west. This event marked the failure of Himmler as Military Commander of the Vistula Army.

Himmler, aware of the impending defeat, began to destroy the evidence of the Holocaust. In April 1945, he also tried to negotiate peace with the Allies by offering to form an alliance to stem the Soviet Union.

As a result of this action, Hitler branded him a traitor and ordered to arrest him. On his escape he was captured by Allied forces, but before his trial he committed suicide by taking cyanide pills on May 23, 1945.

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Roman Blood Gladiator

Gladiators are professional fighters who entertain viewers in violent and bloody confrontations in Ancient Rome. Although the Gladiators were taken from slaves, or criminals, but the Gladiators who were successful in battle received the same attention as celebrities today, so the ideals of being a Gladiator became a magnet for the lower classes of society.

The Origin of the Gladiatorial Fight

The gladiators originally appeared at the Etruscan cemetery (the person who first occupied Rome), as part of a ritual to provide bodyguards to people who have died. Therefore, the fight usually causes the fighters to die.

Meanwhile, Roman historian Titus Livius (Livy) said the gladiatorial battle was first held in 310 BC by the Campanians, in the context of celebrating the victory over the Samnites.

Undeniably, Rome adopted many Etruscan rituals. For example in 264 BC, when the family of M. Brutus seriously celebrated the funeral with a gladiatorial battle. From then on, funerals that were presented by gladiators became ordinary and large. Gladiatorial schools and types of battles were growing rapidly.

Gladiator Classes
There are various classes of gladiators that are distinguished by their battle equipment or models. In the hand to hand combat model there is a Samnite class that fights with national weapons – large shields, visors, feathered helmets, and short swords. Thraces that use small round bucklers and sickle-like daggers; they are generally pitted against mirmillone, who wear Gaul clothing with helmets, swords and shields. The name mirmillone is taken from the name of the fish that symbolizes their helmets.

There are also fighters who use horses, such as Andabatae who are believed to fight on horseback and wear helmets with closed visors – to fight with their eyes closed; dimachaeri (“man of two knives”) who carry short swords in each hand; and essedarii who fought off trains like the ancient English.

In addition to fighting against fellow gladiators, gladiators sometimes also have to face wild animals like lions and fight criminals.

The Way of the Gladiator Fight
The signal for gladiatorial battles is marked by the sound of trumpets and those who show fear are driven into the arena with whips and hot iron. When a gladiator was injured, the audience shouted “Habet” (He was injured); if he is under enemy power, he will raise his index finger to beg for clemency from the people.

If the audience supports compassion, they wave their handkerchiefs, but if they want the death of a conquered gladiator, they turn their thumbs down. (This is a popular view; another view is that those who want the death of the defeated gladiator point their thumbs at their chest as a signal to stab him, and those who hope he will avoid turning their thumbs down as a signal to drop the sword.)

Development of the Gladiatorial Fight
The cruelty that must be accepted by the gladiators resulted in a revolution to oppose this show. In 73-71 BC, a gladiator named Spartacus led the slave revolution in southern Italy. He managed to obtain several victories over the Roman army, until finally stopped by Marcus Licinius Crassus

The development of the gladiators reached a peak at the end of the Republic, when the candidates held large performances for public pleasure and political influence, which culminated in the election of Julius Caesar as aedile in 65 BC.

He held a large-scale celebration, complete with more than 300 pairs of gladiators. From then on, the contest became an important part of imperial control of the Roman masses, satisfying the thirst of the Romans for action and releasing their frustration.

However, the gladiator is actually not a major part of the gambling (public games are held many times throughout the year in Rome). Instead, the battle was staged privately by powerful families. The authorities are expected to provide the same entertainment as the grandeur of their government.

The August Emperor (27 BC-14 AD) overhauled the gladiatorial grip which was previously part of a funeral ritual, becoming a sport of entertainment for people. This policy was then followed by his successor.

In 80 AD, Emperor Titus (79-81 AD) inaugurated the Colosseum with a series of elaborate ceremonies and gladiatorial performances that lasted for 100 days. The Colosseum itself is a circular arena where around 50,000-70,000 eyes witness the death battle.

One of the rulers known to be very fond of gladiatorial performances was Trajan (98-117 AD). He celebrated his victory in the Dacian War by presenting 5000 gladiators in the Colloseum. He really liked the show and his government was recorded because of the show.

Some authorities even participated in gladiatorial performances, such as Hadrian, Caligula and Commodus.

With the advent of Christianity, gladiatorial performances began to fall into disorder. Christians strongly oppose the show and even consider it part of a pagan ritual. Emperor Constantine I finally abolished the gladiatorial battle in 326 AD

But Constantine’s policy did not immediately eliminate gladiators completely. Throughout the fourth century stricter laws were passed, until finally around 399 Honorius ordered the last gladiatorial school to be closed.

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The History of the Berlin Wall

The Berlin Wall which was built in 1961 is a real symbol of the Cold War. This 28-mile long wall separates Soviet-controlled East Berlin and West Berlin supported by the Allies.

The border is heavily guarded, even around the walls lined with barbed wire and minefields.

With the construction of this wall Germany is automatically divided into two. East Germans who used to have jobs in West Germany or vice versa could not work in their previous place. Similarly, families who live on two different sides cannot meet.

Around 191 people died trying to cross into West Berlin and around 5,000 were more successful. The existence of the Berlin wall itself lasted for thirty years.

Background on the Construction of the Berlin Wall
After World War II ended, Germany fell into Allied and Soviet influence. The Allies established their influence in the western part of Germany, while the Soviet in the east.

In May 1949, the West German government was formed with the capital in Bonn. Meanwhile on October 7, 1949 the East German communist government was formed with the capital in East Berlin.

Entering May 1952, the border between the two territories was closed. Only the border between East and West Berlin is still open and is the only main gate for traffic from the two regions.

In the years between 1949 and 1961, around 2.5 million East Germans fled East Germany and entered the West, including an ever-increasing number of skilled, professional and intellectual workers. It is feared that their presence could destroy the economic survival of the East German state. On the other hand, the East German government is also worried about the entry of the understanding of capitalism from the West German region.

In response, East Germany established a barrier to close East Germany’s access to West Germany. The barrier was first built on August 12-13, 1961, as a result of a decision issued on August 12 by East Germany Volkskammer.

The first original wall was built of barbed wire and cinder blocks, then replaced by a series of 5 meter high concrete walls topped with barbed wire and guarded by a watchtower, gun cannons and mines.

In the 1980s, the Berlin Wall was coated with electricity and extended 28 miles (45 km) across Berlin and then extended for another 120 km to separate East and West Germany.

The fall of the Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall symbolizes the Cold War in Western Europe. The separation between the two regions results in a huge gap in prosperity.

In general, the population of West Germany is more prosperous and free than the population of East Germany. As a result, the East Germans tried to cross the barrier.

About 5,000 East Germans succeeded in crossing the Berlin Wall (by various means) and reached West Berlin safely, while 5,000 others were captured by East German authorities and 191 others were killed during a breakthrough attempt.

A wave of democratization that struck eastern Europe, resulted in the fall of communist power in East Germany in October 1989. On November 9, 1989, when the Cold War began to subside in Eastern Europe, a spokesman for the East Berlin Communist Party announced the opening of the country’s borders with West Germany (including West Berlin ).

The opening of the barrier was celebrated with joy by the German population. More than 2 million residents from East Berlin visit West Berlin in a week to celebrate the fall of the Berlin Wall.

With the opening of this wall East German residents can freely travel to West Germany. Then the wall ceased to function as a political barrier between East and West Germany until it was finally destroyed. West and East Germany itself finally officially united on October 3, 1990.

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The Collapse of the Roman Empire

Rome is the largest empire ever known in Western Eurasia. For more than four hundred years the empire stretched from the Hadrian Wall to the Euphrates River. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire was a setback caused by the failure of the empire to establish its authority. The Roman Empire also lost the power that allowed it to exercise effective control. There are at least eight factors that caused the collapse of the Roman Empire.

Invasion of the Barbarians

The simplest theory for the collapse of Western Rome was the consequence of a series of ongoing military losses from outside attacks. Rome had been in conflict with German tribes for centuries, but in the 300s “barbarian” groups like the Goths began to try to disrupt the borders of the Empire.

The threat became more apparent after the Romans faced a German rebellion at the end of the 4th century AD The German tribal attack became increasingly after in 410 King Visigoth Alaric managed to pillage the city of Rome. The Empire spent the next several decades under constant threat from German tribes before the “Eternal City” was raided again in 455, this time by the Vandals.

Finally, in 476 AD the Germanic leader Odoacer launched a rebellion and overthrew Emperor Romulus Augustulus. Since that time, no Roman emperor has ruled again from Italy. The fall of Romulus led many to regard 476 as the end of the Western Roman Empire.

Economic problems and dependence on forced labor
When Rome was attacked by troops from outside, the empire also suffered an economic collapse due to a severe financial crisis. Continual warfare and excessive spending significantly erode government cash. This condition is exacerbated by oppressive taxes and inflation which widens the gap between rich and poor. In hopes of avoiding tax officials, many members of the wealthy class even fled to the countryside and established independent territories.

At the same time, the empire was shaken by a labor deficit. Keep in mind, Rome’s economy depends on slaves to work on his fields and work as craftsmen. However, when the expansion stalled in the 2nd century, the supply of Roman slaves and other war treasures began to run low.

Another blow occurred in the 5th century, when the Vandals occupied North Africa and began disrupting imperial trade by wandering the Mediterranean as pirates. With a faltering economy and declining commercial and agricultural production, the empire began to lose its influence in Europe.

The Rise of the Eastern Roman Empire
The fate of Western Rome was largely determined at the end of the third century, when Emperor Diocletian divided the Empire into two parts – the Western Empire centered on the city of Milan and the Eastern Empire at Byzantium, which later became known as Constantinople. This division made the empire easier to regulate at first, but over time the two parts of the territory began to separate. The Eastern and Western Empires failed to work together to combat outside threats and both were often at odds over resources and military assistance.

As the gulf widened, the Eastern Empire, which was predominantly Greek, grew more prosperous while Latin-speaking Westerners entered into an economic crisis. More importantly, the strength of the Eastern Empire instead diverted the Barbarian invasion to the West.

Emperors like Constantin ensured that the city of Constantinople was fortified and well guarded, but Italy and the city of Rome – which only had symbolic value for many in the East – were left vulnerable. This Western political structure was finally destroyed in the fifth century, but the Eastern Empire lasted for a thousand years before being defeated by the Ottoman Empire in 1453.

Excessive Invasion and Overspending in the Military Field
At the height of its glory, the Roman Empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Euphrates River in the Middle East, however the splendor was also the beginning of its destruction.

With vast territories to govern, the empire faced administrative and logistical nightmares. Although they had a very good transportation system, the Romans could not communicate quickly or effectively enough to manage their territory.

Rome struggled to gather enough troops and resources to defend its borders from local uprisings and outside attacks. In the second century AD Emperor Hadrian was forced to build his famous wall in England only to keep the enemy at bay.

The large amount of funds channeled into the military maintenance of the empire did not necessarily make the empire survive, but instead caused the progress of Rome’s technology and civil infrastructure to slow down until it finally fell into ruin.

Corruption and Political Instability
Difficulties in managing large areas are compounded by ineffective and inconsistent leadership. Becoming a Roman emperor has always been a very dangerous occupation, because it can never escape the coup attempt of his political opponents.

Civil war pushed the empire into chaos. More than 20 people tried to usurp the throne within a span of only 75 years, usually the change of authority occurred after the previous emperor was killed. Praetorian guards – the emperor’s personal bodyguards – killed and installed new rulers as they pleased and even once auctioned the place to the highest bidder.

Political decay also extended to the Roman Senate which failed to quell the excesses of the emperors because of corruption and its inability to be a public secret. When the situation worsened, community pride diminished and many Roman citizens lost faith in their leaders.

The arrival of the Huns and the barbarians’ migration
Barbarian attacks in Rome originated in part from mass migration caused by the invasion of Huns in Europe at the end of the fourth century. When the Eurasian soldiers raged in northern Europe, they drove many Germanic tribes to the borders of the Roman Empire.

The Romans reluctantly allowed members of the Visigoth tribe to cross south of the Danube and enter into the security of a safe Roman territory. But they also treated the Visigoths cruelly.

According to historian Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman officials even forced starving Goths to exchange their children for slavery in exchange for dog meat. It can be said that the Romans created dangerous enemies within their own borders.

When the oppression became more severe to bear, the Goths rose to revolt and eventually defeated Roman forces and killed Emperor Eastern Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD.

The Romans who were shocked at the event negotiated a fragile peace with the barbarians, but the truce ended in 410, when the Goth King Alaric moved west and pillaged Rome.

As the Western Empire weakened, Germanic tribes such as the Vandals and Saxons could move across the border and occupy Britain, Spain and North Africa.

The Rise of Christianity and the Loss of Traditional Values
Rome’s decline was linked to the spread of Christianity and some argue that the emergence of a new faith helped contribute to the downfall of the empire. The Milan Decree legalized Christianity in 313 and then became the state religion in 380. These decrees ended centuries of persecution, but they might also erode the traditional Roman system of values.

Christianity replaced Roman polytheistic religion which saw the emperor as having divine status. Meanwhile, the pope and other church leaders are taking an increasing role in political affairs, which further complicates governance.

18th-century historian Edward Gibbon is the most famous supporter of this theory, but his views have since been widely criticized. While the spread of Christianity might play a small role in limiting Roman civil policy, most scholars now argue that the influence of Christianity is somewhat minor when compared to military, economic and administrative factors.

Weakening Roman Legion
For most of its history, the Roman military was one of the greatest powers in ancient times. But during the setbacks, the once mighty legions began to change.

Unable to recruit enough troops from Roman citizens, emperors such as Diocletian and Constantine began hiring foreign mercenaries to support their armies.

Rome’s legions were eventually filled with German Goths and other barbarians. They were so numerous that Rome began to use the Latin word “barbarus” to refer to “soldiers.”

These Germans were known as fierce warriors, but they had little or no loyalty to the empire. Even their power-hungry officers often turned against their Roman masters. The climax was when many barbarians who were previously joined in the legions looted the city of Rome and brought down the Western Empire forever.

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History of Democracy

Democracy is derived from the Greek “democracy” which means people’s government. Popular government is a government in which everyone has a voice about what needs to be done. The history of democracy itself is believed to have its roots in ancient Greece around two and a half millennia ago (around the sixth century BC).

Birth of Democracy
In Greece, Athens MP named Solon (around 630-560 BC) presented an early version of participatory democracy, which was mixed with elements of social justice.

It aims to correct government control that is exclusive and oppressive (oppressive). This desire arose because at that time wealthy landowners used their influence to exploit a severe economic crisis. They seized the wealth and freedom of the poor population.

Solon who was elected as chief judge in 594 BC then began to oppose the rulers. Reforms aimed at repairing flawed systems are carried out by limiting the absolute power of the upper classes.

In practice Solon limited the influence of the rich and introduced a more humane and balanced legal code. He also increased the role of the People’s Assembly by creating Boule (multi-ethnic council of middle-income citizens), then limiting the authority of the Best Male aristocratic Council (Areopagus).

In 510 BC, Cleisthenes (around 570–507 BC) continued Solon’s constitutional reorganization. He made the People’s Assembly the only legislative body, increased the influence of Boule, seized the effective power of Areopagus, and ensured wide and deep participation in public life.

In Athens, the government allowed all free adult men who were citizens to vote, whether rich or poor. Unfortunately the system has flaws because it does not accommodate women’s rights in politics.

When democracy began to function in Athens, many other city states chose to implement the system in their government. But the opportunity to vote is less than that imposed in Athens.

Most other city-states only allow adult male citizens to choose if they own land or own their own home (ie, rich people). They also don’t let women choose.

One big problem for democracy in ancient times was the lack of time for men to always go to the meeting place to vote.

Most men have jobs, grow rice, make shoes, fight or whatever. They cannot always argue and choose. Therefore, finally some people were chosen who would carry out most of the voting (representative model) and the rest only came when there was a very important vote.

In Athens, people who are representatives of the people are chosen by lottery. The man who wins in the lottery has the right to sit on the Council of 500. Then he will serve for a year on the council.

Development of Democracy
Starting from Ancient Greece, then democracy spread to the region around the Mediterranean. However, democracy in this region was almost destroyed by the Roman Empire around 100 BC.

On the other hand, places like Athens continued to use democratic methods to make their own decisions on local matters for a long time after that.

A thousand years later, in the Middle Ages, several cities in Italy – Siena, Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Venice – returned to democratic rule after Matilda of Canossa died. These democracies are all organized in slightly different ways, but none of them allows the poor, women, or children to vote, and some have a lottery system like Athens.

Farther north in England, some men had the right to elect local officials and their representatives in Parliament in the Middle Ages, but the king still held most of the power.

This Italian democracy, too, was finally conquered by the Holy Roman Empire and ruled by the German emperor.

Starting in the 1600s, people began to struggle to realize democracy again. In England, Cromwell seized power to form Parliament. In America, the Revolutionary War gave birth to the Constitution in 1789. The constitution allowed adults to choose freely if they owned their own agriculture or business.

A few years later, the French Revolution brought democracy to France (for a short time). In the early 1900s, democracy entered Spain – for a while. Even though countries that embraced democracy began to emerge, women’s right to vote was still severely restricted.

Today many countries embrace a form of democracy. In the 20th century. most poor people, people of color, and women have won the right to vote, even though children and foreigners still cannot.

Even though countries that embrace democracy have mushroomed, the amount of power available to voters still varies from country to country and some Middle Eastern countries such as Saudi Arabia still have not implemented this system.

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World War II

World War II is considered one of the biggest and deadliest conflicts in the history of mankind. The war involved many countries and fought on the battlefield in Europe, North Africa, Asia and the Pacific. Broadly speaking the war was divided into two blocks, the Allied bloc (Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States) against the strength of the Axis bloc (Germany, Italy, and Japan).

Background of World War II

The seeds of World War II are derived from a lame resolution post-World War I. The Peace Conference and the Versailles Agreement that ended World War I produced huge profits for the winner (the Allies), while the losing party (the central axis) received unfair treatment. Germany became the most disadvantaged country due to the Versailles Treaty.

In particular, political and economic instability in Germany due to the Treaty of Versailles pushed Adolf Hitler and his Socialist National Party (Nazis) to power in Germany.

After becoming Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hitler quickly consolidated power. He named himself with the title of Führer (supreme leader) in 1934.

Hitler was very obsessed with the idea of the superiority of the pure German race called the Aryan race. He believes that war is only a way to get the living space needed for the race to develop.

In the mid-1930s, he began to rearm Germany secretly and violated the Treaty of Versailles. After signing alliances with Italy and Japan to fight the Soviet Union, Hitler sent troops to occupy Austria in 1938 and the following year annexed Czechoslovakia.

When Hitler’s aggression was getting out of control, the United States and the Soviet Union were preoccupied with domestic problems, so the German problem was a little neglected. Meanwhile France and Britain (the two other countries most devastated by World War I) wanted to avoid confrontation, so they temporarily preferred to remain silent.

Outbreak of World War I
In late August 1939, Hitler and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin signed the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. This agreement that sparked anxiety London and Paris.

Hitler had long planned an invasion of Poland, a country where Britain and France had guaranteed military support if attacked by Germany. The pact with Stalin guaranteed Hitler would not face war on two fronts when he invaded Poland and would instead receive assistance from the Soviets.

On September 1, 1939, Hitler invaded Poland from the west; two days later, France and Britain declared war on Germany and marked the start of World War II.

On September 17, Soviet troops invaded Poland from the east. Under attack from both sides, Poland fell quickly. Entering early 1940 Germany and the Soviet Union had divided control over Poland.

The Stalin army then moved to occupy the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and defeat Finland which provided fierce resistance in the Russo-Finish War.

At sea, the British and German naval fleet fought a fierce battle. German submarines U-boats began attacking merchant ships bound for England, resulting in more than 100 ships sinking in just four months since the war began.

Six months after the invasion of Poland, news about the war has not been widely trusted. Even many Europeans thought the war was just a fake war. But this condition turned into panic after the war raged in Western Europe.

World War II in Western Europe (1940-1941)
On April 9, 1940, Germany simultaneously invaded Norway and occupied Denmark. This German invasion marked the beginning of a real war.

On May 10, German troops swept Belgium and the Netherlands in what became known as the “blitzkrieg” or lightning war. Three days later, Hitler’s forces crossed the Meuse River and attacked French troops in Sedan which was located at the northern end of the Maginot Line. Keep in mind that the defense at Sedan is a complicated defense chain that was built after World War I and is considered an impenetrable defense barrier.

Nevertheless the Germans broke through the ranks with their tanks and planes and proceeded to move forward. British Expeditionary Force (BEF) were evacuated by the sea from Dunkirk in late May, while in the south of the French troops struggled to defend their territory.

When France was on the verge of collapse, the Italian fascist figure, Benito Mussolini, entered into a cooperation agreement with Hitler. Furthermore Italy declared war on France and Britain on 10 June 1940.

On June 14, German troops entered Paris. A new government formed by Marshal Philippe Petain (French hero of World War I), he then asked for a ceasefire two nights later.

France was finally divided into two zones, one under German military occupation and the other under the Petain government, which was based in Vichy.

After Paris was captured, Hitler now turned his attention to England. In contrast to France, England has a defensive advantage because it is separated by the English Channel.

To pave the way for an amphibious invasion, German aircraft began to bombard British territory throughout the summer of 1940. The German effort resulted in many civilians being victimized and damaging to industrial centers.

When the British conditions were pressed, there was a shock in the war in the West. The Royal Air Force (RAF) defeated the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) in the Battle of Britain. This German defeat made Hitler postpone his plans to occupy England.

Britain can breathe a little, when their resources are running low that America comes to help with the logistical shortcomings of the war.

Operation Barbarossa (1941-1942)
In early 1941, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria joined the Axis block. The joining of these countries was followed by German attacks on Yugoslavia and Greece in April.

Hitler’s conquest of the Balkans was the first step towards an invasion of the Soviet Union. The vast area of the USSR is expected to be a living space for the development of the Aryan race.

In addition to being the first step to conquering the Soviet Union, the Balkan conquest was also part of Hitler’s strategy to exterminate Jews in Europe. Many European Jews settled in the Soviet Union.

Hitler considered Jews to be the cause of economic and political instability that plagued Europe. As the planner of the genocide plan, he entrusted to Heinrich Himmler, the German police chief.

The Holocaust coincided with an attack on the Soviets. Over the next three years more than 4 million Jews were slaughtered in concentration camps established in Poland and Austria.

On June 22, 1941, Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union, codenamed Operation Barbarossa. Although the number of Soviet tanks and aircraft far exceeded Germany, their technology was outdated. As a result, Germany managed to approach Moscow in mid-July.

However, the misunderstanding between Hitler and his commander on the field was coupled with the Russian winter which was known to violently delay the progress of the German invasion.

Pacific War (1941-1943)
At a time when the Allies in Europe were overwhelmed by the German invasion, the United States was the only country capable of resisting Japanese aggression in Asia.

On December 7, 1941, the Japanese Prime Minister deployed 360 Japanese aircraft to attack the main US naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The attack shocked Ameria and scowled more than 2,300 troops.

The attack on Pearl Harbor apparently succeeded in uniting American public opinion to support the US joining World War II. On December 8, Congress declared war on Japan. The joining of the US into the war was immediately responded by Germany and other Axis powers by declaring war on the United States.

After a series of Japanese victories, the US Pacific Fleet won the battle in June 1942. This victory is widely believed to be a turning point in the war.

On Guadalcanal, one of the southern Solomon Islands, the Allies successfully fought Japanese forces in a series of battles from August 1942 to February 1943.

In mid-1943, Allied naval forces began an aggressive counterattack against Japan. This attack involved a series of amphibious attacks on the main islands occupied by Japan in the Pacific.

This “island-jumping” strategy proved successful and the Allied forces moved closer to their final destination to attack the Japanese island.

The Allies Turn the situation around (1943-1945)
In North Africa, British and American forces defeated Italy and Germany in 1943. The Allies then severely beat Italy with invasions in Sicily and Italy. The Allied counterattack caused the Mussolini government to fall in July 1943.

On the Eastern Front of World War II, a Soviet counterattack launched in November 1942 ended the protracted Battle of Stalingrad.

The impact of winter, along with the reduced supply of food and medicine, ended the German forces. The last German troops on the Eastern Front surrendered on 31 January 1943.

On 6 June 1944 – celebrated as D-Day, the Allies began a full-scale invasion of Europe. Around 156,000 British, Canadian and American troops on the coast of Normandy, France.

As a form of response, Hitler concentrated all the remaining strength of his troops in Western Europe. This concentration made the Soviet Army free to advance to Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania. After gathering troops, Hitler attempted to drive the Americans and British back from Germany in the Battle of the Bulge (December 1944-January 1945), the last major German offensive in the war.

An intensive aerial bombardment in February 1945 preceded the Allied ground invasion of Germany. German troops could not turn things around, their conditions became even more unclear after Berlin was surrounded.

Germany officially surrendered on May 8 Soviet troops occupied most of the country. Meanwhile German leader Adolf Hitler died after killing himself on April 30 in his Berlin bunker.

End of World War II
At the Potsdam Conference in July-August 1945, US President Harry S. Truman (who had served after Roosevelt’s death in April), Churchill and Stalin discussed the ongoing war with Japan and the settlement of peace with Germany.

Postwar Germany will be divided into four occupation zones which will be controlled by the Soviet Union, Britain, the United States and France.

For the future of Eastern Europe, Churchill and Truman tried to discuss with Stalin, because they still needed Soviet assistance in the war against Japan.

The great casualties suffered by the Allies in the wars in Iwo Jima (February 1945) and Okinawa (April-June 1945) caused Truman to permit the use of new and powerful weapons – atomic bombs – in the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August.

On August 10, the Japanese government issued a statement stating that they would accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration. On September 2, US General Douglas MacArthur accepted the official surrender of Japan aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

World War II proved to be one of the most devastating international conflicts in history. The war claimed around 35 to 60 million lives, including 6 million Jews who died at the hands of the Nazis. Millions more were injured and many people lost their homes and property.

Post-World War II, Communism and Liberalism spread throughout the world. The spread of the two ideologies was followed by the emergence of two superpower countries, the United States and the Soviet Union which competed for competing influence in the world.

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Ancient Persian Empire

The Ancient Persian Empire was the first superpower empire centered on the land of Iran. The first Persian Empire was founded by Cyrus the Great around 550 BC and became one of the greatest empires in history. The Kingdom of Cyrus stretches from the European Balkan Peninsula in the West to the Indus Valley of India in the East.

This dynasty, sometimes referred to as the Achaemenid Empire, was the center of world cultural, religious, scientific, artistic and technological civilization for more than 200 years before it fell to Alexander the Great.

Cyrus the Great: Founder of the Persian Empire

Cyrus II was one of the greatest kings of ancient centuries. Although he is the grandson of the famous King Mendes, Astyages, the king actually wanted to kill his grandson.

The plot of the murder was planned when Cyrus was born. But he survived after the shepherd who was assigned to kill him actually saved him.

He grew up in a shepherd family, before finally at the age of 10 he returned to his original parents, the daughter of Mandane and King of Persia Cambyses I.

Growing up in a family that was always oppressed by the kingdom of Mendes, Cyrus also made him hate his grandfather. After replacing his father in 559 BC, Cyrus then led the war against his grandfather in 553 BC.

The war that lasted for three years finally ended with Cyrus’ victory. The victory marked the founding of the Persian Empire in 550 BC.

Government system of the Persian Empire
The first Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great soon became the world’s first superpower empire. The empire succeeded in establishing a unitary government that controlled the three most important sites of early human civilization: Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley of Egypt and the Indus Valley of India.

At its peak, the Persian Empire stretched from the Balkan Peninsula in Europe – in parts of what is today Bulgaria, Romania and Ukraine – to the Indus River Valley in northwestern India and south to Egypt.

There is a characteristic of the Persian conquest, rather than destroying the local economy for their own selfish advantage, the Persians chose to work to increase trade throughout their empire. They standardize the scales, develop official coins, and apply universal laws.

Persian leaders are obliged to be cooperative and impose a 20 percent tax on all agriculture and manufacturing. They also impose a tax on religious institutions, which despite their previous wealth are not taxed.

Meanwhile, the Persians themselves were not taxed.

Persian kings – especially Cyrus and, later, Darius I (522-486 BC) – developed a model for the administration of a large kingdom which was followed by other kingdoms in the future. The law is applied fairly and equally among all different subjects.

Based in the capital city of Persepolis, Darius I divided their kingdom into 20 provinces run by satrap (governor). Local residents then provide land to feudal landlords in return for loyalty and security guarantees from the Persian army. Most of the people in the empire on average work as farmers or craftsmen.

The Persian capital, Persepolis, located in southern Iran is among the largest archeological sites in the world. Persepolis was included in the UNESCO world heritage site in 1979.

The Achaemenia Persepolis Palace was built on a very large terrace. They are adorned with ornamental facades that include sculptures of the famous ancient Persian long stone reliefs.

So that large areas are well managed, of course, requires good communication. For this reason, Cyrus built the foundations of a courier system, or mail. Darius I then built a communication network that connected most of the empire.

A 1,600-mile highway was built from Sardis to Susa, one of the administrative capitals. Along this road, there are many places for lodging, where royal couriers can get horses and fresh supplies.

Culture of the Ancient Persians
Ancient Persia created art in various forms, including metal, stone carvings, weaving and architecture. When the Persian Empire expanded to include the artistic center of other early civilizations, various new cultures were formed from the influence of Persian culture.

Early Persian art included large stone reliefs carved into the cliffs, such as those found at Naqsh-e Rustam, an ancient tomb filled with the tombs of the Achaemenid kings. In that place, there are intricate stone murals depicting scenes of riding and battle victories.

The ancient Persians were also known for their metals. In the 1870s, smugglers found gold and silver artifacts among the ruins near the Oxus River in Tajikistan today.

Artifacts include small gold trains, coins, and bracelets adorned with griffon motifs. (Griffon is a mystical creature with eagle wings and head and a lion’s body, and a symbol of Persian persepolis.)

British diplomats and military personnel serving in Pakistan brought around 180 of this gold and silver – known as the Oxus Treasure – to London where they are now kept in the British Museum.

The history of woven carpets in Persia comes from nomadic tribes. The ancient Greeks loved this hand-woven carpet art. The carpets are famous for their intricate designs and bright colors.

Ancient Persian Religion
Many people consider Persia to be a synonym with Islam, although Islam only became the dominant religion in the Persian Empire after the conquest of Arabia in the seventh century. The first Persian Empire was formed by a different religion: Zoroastrianism.

The name of the religion comes from the Persian prophet Zoroaster (also known as Zarathustra). Zoroastrianism is arguably the first monotheistic religion in the world. Until now the religion is still practiced as a minority religion in parts of Iran and India.

Zoroaster, who probably lived between 1,500 and 500 BC, taught his followers to worship one god, not many, as previously Indo-Iranian groups worshiped.

The Achaemenian kings were devout Zoroastrians. According to most accounts, Cyrus the Great was a tolerant ruler who allowed his people to speak their own language and practice their own religion. Although he himself adhered to the Zoroastrian Asha (truth and truth) law, he did not impose Zoroastrianism on people from the territories conquered by Persia.

The Hebrew scriptures praise Cyrus for freeing the Jews in Babylon and allowing them to return to Jerusalem.

Subsequent rulers in the Achaemenid Empire followed Cyrus’s model of approach to social and religious affairs, thus enabling the diverse Persians to continue practicing their own way of life. This time period is sometimes called Pax Persica or Persian Peace.

The collapse of the Persian Empire
The Persian Empire entered a period of decline after the failure of Xerxes I’s invasion of Greece in 480 BC. The management of expensive Persian lands also consumed the imperial treasury. This condition causes the imposition of high taxes for the Persians.

The Achaemenid Dynasty finally fell to Alexander the Great in 330 BC. The next ruler tried to restore the glory of the Persian Empire, but the empire never reached the level of glory that had been achieved by Cyrus the Great and Darius I.

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History of the Great Wall of China

The Great Wall of China is a series of ancient walls and fortresses located in northern China. This wall has a length of 21,196.18 kilometers.

The Great Wall of China is China’s best-known symbol and has a long history. Initially the wall was built by Emperor Qin Shi Huang in the third century BC. as a means to prevent attacks from the Xiongnu and other nomadic tribes.

For more than 2,000 years the construction of the wall was continued by the Chinese authorities. The most famous and preserved part of the Great Wall was built in the 14th to 17th centuries, during the Ming dynasty. Although the Great Wall has never effectively prevented the invaders from entering China, it serves as a tangible symbol of Chinese civilization that has existed for a long time.

Qin Shi Huang and the Beginning of the Construction of the Great Wall of China

The construction of the Great Wall of China can be traced to the 3rd century BC, but many fortifications including the inside of the wall have been built hundreds of years before. The fortresses were built when China was divided into several warring kingdoms.

Around 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor to unite China under the Qin Dynasty, ordered the removal of defense posts between countries and united a number of walls along the northern border into one defense system. The wall was then extended by more than one 10,000 li (li is about one third of a mile). The aim of this project is to protect China from the attack of nomadic tribes in the north.

The construction of the Great Wall of China became one of the most ambitious development projects ever undertaken by any civilization. The famous Chinese general Meng Tian was in charge of the project.

According to some accounts it is said that the construction of the Great Wall of China used troops, prisoners, and commoners as workers.

Most of the Great Wall of China is made of earth and stone. The wall stretches from the port of the Shanhaiguan Chinese Sea more than 3,000 miles west to Gansu province. In some strategic areas, parts of the wall are overlapped for maximum security.

The wall has a foundation as high as 15 to 50 feet, then a height of about 15-30 feet and topped with a fort as high as 12 feet or higher. The building also features a guard tower that is placed along the wall interval.

When Emperor Qin Shi Huang ordered the construction of the Great Wall around 221 BC, the workforce that built the wall consisted mainly of soldiers and prisoners. It is said that as many as 400,000 people died during the construction of the wall. Many of these workers were buried in the walls themselves.

The Great Wall of China in Cross History
With the death of Qin Shi Huang and the fall of the Qin Dynasty, many parts of the Great Wall were damaged. After the next dynasty, the Han Dynasty also collapsed, a series of border tribes controlling northern China.

Among the most powerful of the tribes was the Northern Wei Dynasty. When in power this dynasty repaired and expanded the existing wall to defend against attacks from other tribes.

Bei Qi Kingdom (550-577) built or repaired walls of more than 900 miles. Repair and expansion were then continued by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581–618).

With the fall of Sui and the rise of the Tang Dynasty, the Great Wall lost its function as a fortress, because China had defeated the Tujue tribe in the north and expanded its territory beyond the original border protected by the wall.

During the Song Dynasty, the Chinese were forced to retreat under threat from the Liao and Jin people in the north who took over many areas on both sides of the Great Wall. The powerful Yuan (Mongol) dynasty (1206-1368), founded by Genghis Khan, eventually controlled all of China, parts of Asia and parts of Europe.

Although the Great Wall was not so important to the Mongols in particular as a military stronghold, the soldiers were still assigned to the wall to protect merchants and caravans traveling along the Silk Road trade routes.

Construction of the Ming Dynasty Wall
Despite its long history, the Great Wall of China as it is today is mostly built during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).

Like the Mongols, the early Ming rulers were less interested in building border fortifications, and building limited walls until the end of the 15th century.

In 1421, emperor Ming Yongle proclaimed China’s new capital, Beijing, at the site of the former Mongol city of Dadu. Under the cold rulers of the Ming rulers, Chinese culture flourished, and the period saw a large amount of construction alongside the Great Wall, including bridges, temples and pagodas.

The construction of the Great Wall as it is known today began around 1474. After the initial phase of regional expansion, the Ming rulers largely took a defensive stance and the expansion of the Great Wall was the key to this strategy.

The Great Wall of China in Modern Times
In the mid-17th century, Manchus from central and southern Manchuria broke through the Great Wall and entered Beijing. In the end they forced the Ming Dynasty to abdicate, while also marking the beginning of the Qing Dynasty.

Between the 18th and 20th centuries, the Great Wall emerged as China’s most common symbol for the Western world, and both physical symbols – as manifestations of Chinese power – and psychological representations of barriers maintained by the Chinese state to repel foreign influence and exert control over its citizens.

Today, the Great Wall is generally recognized as one of the most impressive architectural achievements in human history. There was an effort to maintain the structure of the wall, but a more concrete step was only realized in 1980, when China made the wall a tourist attraction and source of income.

In 1987, UNESCO established the Great Wall as a World Heritage Site, and popular claims that emerged in the 20th century stated that this wall was the only man-made structure seen from space.